Dyskusja wikiprojektu:Tłumaczenie artykułów/Plan Marshalla

Treść strony nie jest dostępna w innych językach.
Z Wikipedii, wolnej encyklopedii

Pominięte w tłumaczeniu[edytuj kod]

Under Secretary of State en:Dean Acheson had made a major speech on the issue, which had mostly been ignored, and Vice President en:Alben W. Barkley had also raised the idea.

In popular culture

en:Secretary of Commerce en:W. Averell Harriman's press aide, en:Alfred Friendly, wrote a humorous en:operetta about the Marshall Plan during its first year; one of the lines in the operetta was: "Wines for Sale; will you swap / A little bit of steel for Chateau Neuf du Pape?"[martwy link][1]

This group's most prominent representative was en:Robert A. Taft.

ECA was headed by economic cooperation administrator en:Paul G. Hoffman.

(later called the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, en:OECD), which was headed by Frenchman en:Robert Marjolin.

While the western portion of the Soviet Union had been as badly affected as any part of the world by the war, the eastern portion of the country was largely untouched and had seen a rapid industrialization during the war. The Soviets also imposed large reparations payments on the Axis allies that were in its sphere of influence. en:Finland, en:Hungary, en:Romania, and especially en:East Germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the USSR. These reparation payments meant that the Soviet Union received almost as much as any of the countries receiving Marshall Plan aid.[potrzebny przypis]

Realizacja

The first substantial aid went to en:Greece and en:Turkey in January 1947, which were seen as being on the front lines of the battle against communist expansion and were already being aided under the en:Truman Doctrine. Initially the UK had supported the anti-communist factions in those countries, but due to its dire economic condition it requested the U.S. to continue its efforts. The ECA formally began operation in July 1948. Its official en:mission statement was to give a boost to the European economy: to promote European production, to bolster European currency, and to facilitate international trade, especially with the United States, whose economic interest required Europe to become wealthy enough to import U.S. goods. Another unofficial goal of ECA (and of the Marshall Plan) was the containment of growing Soviet influence in Europe, evident especially in the growing strength of communist parties in Czechoslovakia, France, and Italy.

The Marshall Plan money was transferred to the governments of the European nations. The funds were jointly administered by the local governments and the ECA. Each European capital had an ECA envoy, generally a prominent American businessman, who would advise on the process. The cooperative allocation of funds was encouraged, and panels of government, business, and labor leaders were convened to examine the economy and see where aid was needed.

The Marshall Plan aid was mostly used for the purchase of goods from the United States. The European nations had all but exhausted their en:foreign exchange reserves during the war, and the Marshall Plan aid represented almost their sole means of importing goods from abroad. At the start of the plan these imports were mainly much-needed staples such as food and fuel, but later the purchases turned towards reconstruction needs as was originally intended. In the latter years, under pressure from the United States Congress and with the outbreak of the en:Korean War, an increasing amount of the aid was spent on rebuilding the militaries of Western Europe. Of the some $13 billion allotted by mid-1951, $3.4 billion had been spent on imports of raw materials and semi-manufactured products; $3.2 billion on food, feed, and fertilizer; $1.9 billion on machines, vehicles, and equipment; and $1.6 billion on fuel.[2]

Also established were en:counterpart funds, which used Marshall Plan aid to establish funds in the local currency. According to ECA rules 60% of these funds had to be invested in industry. This was prominent in Germany, where these government-administered funds played a crucial role in lending money to private enterprises which would spend the money rebuilding. These funds played a central role in the reindustrialization of Germany. In 1949–50, for instance, 40% of the investment in the German coal industry was by these funds.[3] The companies were obligated to repay the loans to the government, and the money would then be lent out to another group of businesses. This process has continued to this day in the guise of the state owned en:KfW bank. The Special Fund, then supervised by the Federal Economics Ministry, was worth over DM 10 billion in 1971. In 1997 it was worth DM 23 billion. Through the revolving loan system, the Fund had by the end of 1995 made low-interest loans to German citizens amounting to around DM 140 billion. The other 40% of the counterpart funds were used to pay down the debt, stabilize the currency, or invest in non-industrial projects. France made the most extensive use of counterpart funds, using them to reduce the budget deficit. In France, and most other countries, the counterpart fund money was absorbed into general government revenues, and not recycled as in Germany.

A far less expensive, but also quite effective, ECA initiative was the Technical Assistance Program. This program funded groups of European engineers and industrialists to visit the United States and tour mines, factories, and smelters so that they could then copy the American advances at home. At the same time several hundred American en:technical advisors were sent to Europe.

Efekty

The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953. Any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the en:Korean War and rearmament. American Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections, and conservative opposition to the plan was revived. Thus the plan ended in 1951, though various other forms of American aid to Europe continued afterwards.

The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35%. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels.[4] The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically. There is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the Marshall Plan. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. Most believe that the Marshall Plan sped this recovery, but did not initiate it.

The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as important as the economic ones. Marshall Plan aid allowed the nations of Western Europe to relax austerity measures and rationing, reducing discontent and bringing political stability. The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly reduced, and throughout the region communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the Marshall Plan. The trade relations fostered by the Marshall Plan helped forge the North Atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the Cold War. At the same time, the nonparticipation of the states of Eastern Europe was one of the first clear signs that the continent was now divided.

The Marshall Plan also played an important role in European integration. Both the Americans and many of the European leaders felt that European integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to foster integration. In some ways this effort failed, as the en:OEEC never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation. Rather it was the separate en:European Coal and Steel Community, which notably excluded Britain, that would eventually grow into the en:European Union. However, the OEEC served as both a testing and training ground for the structures and bureaucrats that would later be used by the en:European Economic Community. The Marshall Plan, linked into the en:Bretton Woods system, also mandated free trade throughout the region.

While some historians today feel some of the praise for the Marshall Plan is exaggerated, it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world. After the fall of communism several proposed a "Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe" that would help revive that region. Others have proposed a Marshall Plan for Africa to help that continent, and U.S. vice president en:Al Gore suggested a en:Global Marshall Plan.[5] "Marshall Plan" has become a metaphor for any very large scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social problem. It is usually used when calling for federal spending to correct a perceived failure of the private sector.

The West German economic recovery was partly due to the economic aid provided by the Marshall Plan, but mainly it was due to the currency reform of 1948 which replaced the Reichsmark with the en:Deutsche Mark as legal tender, halting rampant inflation. This act to strengthen the German economy had been explicitly forbidden during the two years that the occupation directive JCS 1067 was in effect. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industry finally ended in 1951. The Marshall Plan was only one of several forces behind the German recovery.[6][7] Even so, in Germany the myth of the Marshall Plan is still alive. According to Marshall Plan 1947–1997 A German View by Susan Stern, many Germans still believe that Germany was the exclusive beneficiary of the plan, that it consisted of a free gift of vast sums of money, and that it was solely responsible for the German economic recovery in the 1950s.[7]

Repayment

The Organization for European Economic Cooperation took the leading role in allocating funds, and the ECA arranged for the transfer of the goods. The American supplier was paid in dollars, which were credited against the appropriate European Recovery Program funds. The European recipient, however, was not given the goods as a gift, but had to pay for them (though not necessarily at once, on credit etc.) in local currency, which was then deposited by the government in a counterpart fund. This money, in turn, could be used by the ERP countries for further investment projects.

Most of the participating ERP governments were aware from the beginning that they would never have to return the counterpart fund money to the U.S.; it was eventually absorbed into their national budgets and "disappeared". Originally the total American aid to Germany (in contrast to grants given to other countries in Europe) had to be repaid. But under the London debts agreement of 1953, the repayable amount was reduced to about $1 billion. Aid granted after July 1, 1951 amounted to around $270 million, of which Germany had to repay $16.9 million to the Washington Export-Import Bank. In reality, Germany did not know until 1953 exactly how much money it would have to pay back to the U.S., and insisted that money was given out only in the form of interest-bearing loans—a revolving system ensuring the funds would grow rather than shrink. A lending bank was charged with overseeing the program. European Recovery Program loans were mostly used to support small- and medium-sized businesses. Germany paid the U.S. back in installments (the last check was handed over in June 1971). However, the money was not paid from the ERP fund, but from the central government budget.[potrzebny przypis]

Literatura dodatkowa

  • Agnew, John and Entrikin, J. Nicholas eds. The Marshall Plan Today: Model and Metaphor. Routledge. (2004) online version
  • Arkes, Hadley. Bureaucracy, the Marshall Plan, and the National Interest. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1972.
  • Behrman, Greg, The Most Noble Adventure: The Marshall Plan and the Time When America Helped Save Europe (Free Press, 2007) ISBN 0-7432-8263-9
  • Bonds, John Bledsoe; Bipartisan Strategy: Selling the Marshall Plan Praeger, 2002 online version
  • Chiarella Esposito; America's Feeble Weapon: Funding the Marshall Plan in France and Italy, 1948–1950, Greenwood Press, 1994 online version
  • Denison, Edward F. & Chung, William K., How Japan's Economy Grew So Fast Brookings Institute, 1976
  • Djelic, Marie-Laure A.; Exporting the American Model: The Post-War Transformation of European Business.Oxford University Press, 1998 online version
  • Fossedal, Gregory A. Our Finest Hour: Will Clayton, the Marshall Plan, and the Triumph of Democracy. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1993.
  • Gimbel, John, The origins of the Marshall plan (Stanford University Press, 1976). (reviewed here)
  • Kennedy, David, Cohen, Lizbeth, Bailey, Thomas A., The American Pageant A History of the Republic
  • Kipping, Matthias and Bjarnar, Ove; The Americanisation of European Business: The Marshall Plan and the Transfer of Us Management Models Routledge, 1998 online version
  • Mee, Charles L. The Marshall Plan: The Launching of the Pax Americana. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.
  • Milward, Alan S. The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51. London: Methuen, 1984.
  • Röpke, Wilhelm, Humane Economist,Biography of Wilhelm Röpke (1899-1966): Humane Economist. Mises.org. [dostęp 2009-08-18]. (ang.).
  • Vickers, Rhiannon, Manipulating Hegemony: State Power, Labour and the Marshall Plan in Britain Palgrave Publishers, 2000 online edition
  • Wallich, Henry Christopher. Mainsprings of the German Revival. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955
  • Wasser, Solidelle F. and Dolfman, Michael L., "BLS and the Marshall Plan: The Forgotten Story: The Statistical Technical Assistance of BLS Increased Productive Efficiency and Labor Productivity in Western European Industry after World War II; Technological Literature Surveys and Plan-Organized Plant Visits Supplemented Instruction in Statistical Measurement", Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 128, 2005
  • Wend, Henry Burke; Recovery and Restoration: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Politics of Reconstruction of West Germany's Shipbuilding Industry, 1945–1955. Praeger, 2001 online version
  • Zmirak, John, Wilhelm Röpke: Swiss Localist, Global Economist (ISI Books, 2001)

Zobacz też[edytuj kod]

Linki zewnętrzne[edytuj kod]

  1. ↑ [martwy link] Richard D. McKinzie: Oral History Interview with Lincoln Gordon. Truman Library, 17 lipca, 1975. [dostęp 2 grudnia 2008]. (ang.).
  2. ↑ Hogan, p.415
  3. ↑ Crafts, Toniolo, p.464
  4. ↑ BRAKUJĄCY PRZYPIS
  5. ↑ Marshall Plan style proposals for other parts of the world have been a perennial idea. For instance, en:Tony Blair and en:Gordon Brown have referred to their African aid goals as "a Marshall Plan".[1]. After the end of the Cold War many felt Eastern Europe needed a rebuilding plan
  6. ↑ German Economic "Miracle" Henderson, David R.
  7. ↑ a b Stern. Germany.info. [dostęp 2009-08-18]. (ang.).
Źródło: „https://pl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyskusja_wikiprojektu:Tłumaczenie_artykułów/Plan_Marshalla&oldid=73474422”