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Oficjalny emblemat programu (NASA).
Oficjalny emblemat programu (NASA).

Program Shuttle-Mir - wspólny program kosmiczny Rosji i Stanów Zjednoczonych, którego celem była realizacja długoterminowych wypraw na rosyjską stację kosmiczną Mir. W ramach tej współpracy transport rosyjskich kosmonautów był dokonywany przez amerykańskie wahadłowce, a amerykańskich astronautów przez rosyjskie pojazdy kosmiczne Sojuz.

Program, określany również jako "Faza Pierwsza", został powołany, aby umożliwić Stanom Zjednoczonym korzystanie z doświadczenia Rosjan w długoterminowych lotach kosmicznych, a także miał za zadanie wpłynąć na obudzenie ducha współpracy między dwoma narodami i ich agencjami kosmicznymi, odpowiednio NASA i Roskosmos. W dalszej perspektywie czasu miało to wpłynąć na przyszłą współpracę przy kosmicznych przedsięwzięciach, szczególnie przy "Fazie Drugiej", czyli budowie Międzynarodowej Stacji Kosmicznej. Ogłoszenie programu miało miejsce w 1993 roku. Pierwsza misja w jego ramach odbyła się rok później, a program był kontynuowany do 1998 roku, po odbyciu zaplanowanych jedenastu misji wahadłowców. W trakcie siedmiu wypraw z tego okresu, amerykańscy astronauci spędzili niemal 1000 dni w kosmosie.

Podczas czterech lat trwania programu, zostało ustanowionych wiele rekordów, m.in.: pierwszy amerykański astronauta na pokładzie statku Sojuz, największy latający pojazd kosmiczny oraz pierwszy spacer kosmiczny amerykańskiego astronauty w rosyjskim kombinezonie klasy Orłan.

Realizacja programu wiązała się z wieloma obawami, szczególnie bezpieczeństwa stacji "Mir" po pożarze i kolizji na pokładzie, kwestii finansowych związanych z brakiem środków na Rosyjski Program Kosmiczny oraz zaniepokojeniem astronautów postawą administratorów wobec całego programu. Niemniej jednak, dzięki wspólnym działaniom obydwu agencji kosmicznych, pozyskana wiedza dotycząca budowy stacji orbitalnej oraz wpółpracy przy kosmicznych przedsięwzięciach, zmniejszyła liczbę potencjalnych problemów podczas konstruowania Międzynarodowej Stacji Kosmicznej (ISS).

Geneza[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Korzenie programu sięgają zimnej wojny, mimo że został zaplanowany jako część projektu Międzynarodowej Stacji Kosmicznej (ISS). W odpowiedzi na przebywające na orbicie sowieckie stacje Salut i Mir, NASA planowała w latach 80-tych wystrzelenie modułowej stacji kosmicznej Freedom. W tym samym okresie Związek Radziecki planował w następnym dziesięcioleciu zbudować następcę Mir-a, Mir-2[1].

Because of budget and design constraints however, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests, and with the fall of the Soviet Union ending the Cold War and Space Race, Freedom was nearly cancelled by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been constructed.[1] Similar budgetary difficulties were being faced by other nations with space station projects, prompting American government officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative, multi-national, space station project.[1]

In June 1992, American President George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to co-operate on space exploration by signing the Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes. This agreement called for setting up a short, joint space project, during which one American astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts would board a Space Shuttle.[1]

In September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station.[2] They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States would be heavily involved in the Mir project in the years ahead, under the code name "Phase One" (the construction of the ISS being "Phase Two").[3]

During the course of the project, 11 Space Shuttle missions visited the station, rotating crews and delivering supplies. In addition, one of the flights, STS-74, carried new components to Mir, consisting of a docking module and a pair solar arrays. Various scientific experiments were also conducted, both on shuttle flights and long-term aboard the station. The project also saw the launch of two new modules, Spektr and Priroda, to Mir, which were used by American astronauts as living quarters and laboratories to conduct the majority of their science aboard the station. These missions allowed NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to learn a great deal about how best to work with international partners in space and how to minimize the risks associated with assembling a large space station in orbit, as would have to be done with the ISS.[4][5]

The project also served as a political ruse on the part of the American government, providing a diplomatic channel for NASA to take part in the funding of the cripplingly under-funded Russian space program. This in turn allowed the newly fledged Russian government to keep Mir operating, in addition to the Russian space program as a whole, ensuring the Russian government remained (and remains) friendly towards the United States.[6][7]

A portrait of six men and one woman, arranged in two rows, four sitting at the front and three standing at the back. They are each wearing tan trousers and a blue polo shirt with a patch and their name on it, and the US and NASA flags are visible in the background.
The seven American astronauts who carried out long-duration Increments on Mir

Increments[edytuj | edytuj kod]

In addition to the flights of the Shuttle to Mir, Phase One also featured seven "Increments" aboard the station, long-duration flights aboard Mir by American astronauts. The seven astronauts who took part in the Increments, Norman Thagard, Shannon Lucid, John Blaha, Jerry Linenger, Michael Foale, David Wolf and Andrew Thomas, were each flown in turn to Star City, Russia, to undergo training in various aspects of the operation of Mir and the Soyuz spacecraft used for transport to and from the Station. The astronauts also received practice in carrying out spacewalks outside Mir and lessons in the Russian language, which would be used throughout their missions to talk with the other cosmonauts aboard the station and Mission Control in Russia, the TsUP.[7]

During their expeditions aboard Mir, the astronauts carried out various experiments, including growth of crops and crystals, and took hundreds of photographs of the Earth spinning serenely beneath them. They also assisted in the maintenance and repair of the aging station, following various incidents with fires, collisions, power losses, uncontrolled spins and toxic leaks. In all, the American astronauts would spend almost a thousand days aboard Mir, allowing NASA to learn a great deal about long-duration spaceflight, particularly in the areas of astronaut psychology and how best to arrange experiment schedules for crews aboard space stations.[6][7]

Widok na stację Mir z oddalającego się w trakcie misji STS-91 wahadłowca Discovery.

Mir[edytuj | edytuj kod]

 Osobny artykuł: Mir (stacja kosmiczna).

Stacja Mir została zbudowana w latach 1986 - 1996 jako pierwsza modułowa stacja kosmiczna w historii. Była pierwszą stale zamieszkaną stacją badawczą w kosmosie, ustanawiając rekord najdłuższego nieprzerwanego pobytu człowieka w przestrzeni kosmicznej, wynoszący 3644 dni. Głównym celem powstania Mira było udostępnienie dużego i możliwego do zamieszkania kosmicznego laboratorium naukowego, jednak w wyniku przeprowadzonych programów Interkosmos i Shuttle-Mir stała się także dostępna dla kosmonautów z innych krajów. Istniała do 23 marca 2001 roku, kiedy to została celowo zdeorbitowana i uległa zniszczeniu podczas wchodzenia w niższe warstwy atmosfery[1].

Mir powstał na bazie serii siedmiu stacji Salut wystrzelonych w latach 1971 - 1982 przez Związek Radziecki. Jego serwisowanie odbywało się przy udziale rosyjskich załogowych statków transportowych Sojuz i Progress. Planowano również możliwość dokowania do stacji wahadłowca Buran, jednak jego program anulowano po odbyciu jedynego bezzałogowego lotu kosmicznego. Wizytujące stację amerykańskie wahadłowce korzystały z pierwotnie zaprojektowanego dla Burana modułu dokującego, zamontowanego na wsporniku początkowo przeznaczonym do stacji kosmicznej Freedom[1].

Zadokowany wahadłowiec kosmiczny powiększał przestrzeń życiową, tworząc największy ówcześnie pojazd kosmiczny, o masie 250 ton metrycznych[1][8].

Widok z góry na wahadłowiec Atlantis spoczywający na ruchomej platformie startowej (MPL) przed rozpoczęciem misji STS-79.

Wahadłowiec kosmiczny[edytuj | edytuj kod]

 Osobny artykuł: Wahadłowiec kosmiczny.

NASA's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System (STS), is the United States government's current manned launch vehicle. A total of five usable orbiters were built, of which three remain. The winged shuttle Orbiter is launched vertically, usually carrying five to seven astronauts (although eight have been carried and eleven could be accommodated in an emergency) along with up to 50 000 lb (Błąd: Zła jednostka docelowa. Zobacz konwertowane jednostki.) of payload into low earth orbit. When its mission is complete, it fires its manoeuvring thrusters to drop out of orbit and re-enters the Earth's atmosphere. During the descent and landing, the shuttle Orbiter acts as a glider and makes a completely unpowered landing.[9][10]

The Shuttle is the first orbital spacecraft designed for partial reusability. It carries large payloads to various orbits, and, during the Shuttle–Mir and ISS programs, provides crew rotation and carries various supplies, modules and pieces of equipment to the stations. Each Shuttle was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or 10 years' operational life.[9][10]

During the course of Phase One, Mir was visited by Space Shuttles Szablon:OV, Szablon:OV and Szablon:OV, with Atlantis in particular flying seven straight missions to the station from 1995 to 1997. Space Shuttle Szablon:OV, the oldest and heaviest of the fleet, was incapable of efficient operations at MirSzablon:'s (and later the ISS's) 51.6-degree inclination and was not equipped with an external airlock, required for space station dockings.[11][12][13]

Chronologia[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Rozpoczęcie programu - start promu kosmicznego Discovery w ramach misji STS-60.

Rozpoczęcie współpracy (1994)[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Phase One of the Shuttle–Mir Program began on February 3, 1994, with the launch of Space Shuttle Discovery on its 18th mission, STS-60. The eight-day mission was the first shuttle flight of that year, the first flight of a Russian Cosmonaut, Sergei Krikalev, aboard the American shuttle, and marked the start of increased cooperation in space for the two nations, 37 years after the Space Race began.[14] Part of an international agreement on human space flight, the mission was the second flight of the Spacehab pressurized module and marked the hundredth "Getaway Special" payload to fly in space. The primary payload for the mission was the Wake Shield Facility (or WSF), a device designed to generate new semiconductor films for advanced electronics. The WSF was flown at the end of Discovery's robotic arm over the course of the flight. During the mission, the astronauts aboard Discovery also carried out various experiments aboard the Spacehab module in the Orbiter's payload bay, and took part in a live bi-directional audio and downlink video hookup between themselves and the three Cosmonauts on board Mir, Valeri Polyakov, Viktor Afanasyev and Yury Usachev (flying Mir expeditions LD-4 and EO-15).[11][15][16]

Widok na stację Mir z pokładu promu Atlantis niedługo po oddokowaniu kończącym misję STS-71.

Przybycie amerykanów na Mir (1995)[edytuj | edytuj kod]

1995 began with the launch of the Space Shuttle Discovery on February 3. Discovery's mission, STS-63, was the second Space Shuttle flight in the program and the first flight of the shuttle with a female pilot, Eileen Collins. Referred to as the "near-Mir" mission, the eight-day flight saw the first rendezvous of a Space Shuttle with Mir, as Russian Cosmonaut Vladimir Titov and the rest of Discovery's crew approached within 37 ft (11,28 m) of Mir. Following the rendezvous, Collins performed a flyaround of the station. The mission, a dress rehearsal for the first docked mission in the program, STS-71, also carried out testing of various techniques and pieces of equipment that would be used during the docking missions that followed.[15][17][18]

Five weeks after Discovery's flight, the March 14 launch of Soyuz TM-21 carried expedition EO-18 to Mir. The crew consisted of Cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov and NASA Astronaut Norman Thagard, who became the first American to fly into space aboard the Soyuz spacecraft. During the course of their 115 day expedition, the Spektr science module (which served as living and working space for American astronauts) was launched aboard a Proton rocket and docked to Mir. Spektr carried more than 1500 lb (680,39 kg) of research equipment from America and other nations. The expedition's crew returned to Earth aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis following the first Shuttle–Mir docking during mission STS-71.[1][6][19]

A space shuttle payload bay, covered in white insulation, with a small, cylindrical orange module at one end, supported by the shuttle's robotic arm. The blackness of space and the Earth serve as the backdrop.
The Mir Docking Module, positioned in Atlantis's payload bay on STS-74, ready to be docked to Kristall

The primary objectives of STS-71, launched on June 27, called for the Space Shuttle Atlantis to rendezvous and perform the first docking between an American Space Shuttle and the station. On June 29, Atlantis successfully docked with Mir, becoming the first US spacecraft to dock with a Russian spacecraft since the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975.[20] Atlantis delivered Cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Nikolai Budarin, who would form the expedition EO-19 crew, and retrieved Astronaut Norman Thagard and Cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov of the expedition EO-18 crew. Atlantis also carried out on-orbit joint US-Russian life sciences investigations aboard a Spacelab module and performed a logistical resupply of the station.[15][21][22]

The final Shuttle flight of 1995, STS-74, began with the November 12 launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis, and delivered the Russian-built Docking Module to Mir, along with a new pair of solar arrays and other hardware upgrades for the station. The Docking Module was designed to provide more clearance for Shuttles in order to prevent any collisions with Mir's solar arrays during docking, a problem which had been overcome during STS-71 by relocating the station's Kristall module to a different location on the station. The module, attached to Kristall's docking port, prevented the need for this procedure on further missions. During the course of the flight, nearly 1000 lb (453,59 kg) of water were transferred to Mir and experiment samples including blood, urine and saliva were moved to Atlantis for return to Earth.[15][23][24][25]

A rectangular dish shape of scaffolding covered in transparent sheeting, with a white insulation-covered radio receiver and support projecting from the centre. The blackness of space serves as the backdrop.
A view of the Travers RADAR antenna on the newly launched Priroda module during STS-79

Priroda (1996)[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Continuous US presence aboard Mir started in 1996 with the March 22 launch of Atlantis on mission STS-76, when the Second Increment astronaut Shannon Lucid was transferred to the station. STS-76 was the third docking mission to Mir, which also demonstrated logistics capabilities through deployment of a Spacehab module, and placed experiment packages aboard Mir's docking module, which marked the first spacewalk which occurred around docked vehicles. The spacewalks, carried out from Atlantis's crew cabin, provided valuable experience for astronauts in order to prepare for later assembly missions to the International Space Station.[26]

Lucid became the first American woman to live on station, and, following a six-week extension to her Increment due to issues with Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, her 188-day mission set the US single spaceflight record. During Lucid's time aboard Mir, the Priroda module, with about 2200 lb (997,9 kg) of US science hardware, was docked to Mir. Lucid made use of both Priroda and Spektr to carry out 28 different science experiments and as living quarters.[15][27]

A view showing a module covered in white insulation with a smaller module, covered in orange insulation, connected to the end of it. Part of a space shuttle can be seen attached to the orange module, and a number of folded and unfolded solar arrays are visible. The limb of the Earth forms the backdrop.
Space Shuttle Atlantis docked to Mir during STS-81. The crew compartment, nose and a portion of the payload bay of Atlantis are visible, behind Mir's Kristall and Docking Modules.

Her stay aboard Mir ended with the flight of Atlantis on STS-79, which launched on September 16. STS-79 was the first Shuttle mission to carry a double Spacehab module. More than 4000 lb (1814,37 kg) of supplies were transferred to Mir, including water generated by Atlantis's fuel cells, and experiments that included investigations into superconductors, cartilage development, and other biology studies. About 2000 lb (907,18 kg) of experiment samples and equipment were also transferred back from Mir to Atlantis, making the total transfer the most extensive yet.[28]

This, the fourth docking, also saw John Blaha transferring onto Mir to take his place as resident Increment astronaut. His stay on the station improved operations in several areas, including transfer procedures for a docked space shuttle, "hand-over" procedures for long duration American crew members and "Ham" amateur radio communications.

Two spacewalks were carried out during his time aboard. Their aim was to remove electrical power connectors from a 12-year old solar power array on the base block and reconnect the cables to the more efficient new solar power arrays. In all, Blaha spent four months with the Mir-22 Cosmonaut crew conducting material science, fluid science, and life science research, before returning to Earth the next year aboard Atlantis on STS-81.[15][29]

Pożar i zderzenie (1997)[edytuj | edytuj kod]

In 1997 STS-81 replaced Increment astronaut John Blaha with Jerry Linenger, after Blaha's 118-day stay aboard Mir. During this fifth shuttle docking, the crew of Atlantis moved supplies to the station and returned to Earth the first plants to complete a life cycle in space; a crop of wheat planted by Shannon Lucid. During five days of mated operations, the crews transferred nearly 6000 lb (Błąd: Zła jednostka docelowa. Zobacz konwertowane jednostki.) of logistics to Mir, and transferred 2400 lb (Błąd: Zła jednostka docelowa. Zobacz konwertowane jednostki.) of materials back to Atlantis (the most materials transferred between the two spacecraft to that date).[30]

The STS-81 crew also tested the Shuttle Treadmill Vibration Isolation and Stabilization System (TVIS), designed for use in the Zvezda module of the International Space Station. The shuttle's small vernier jet thrusters were fired during the mated operations to gather engineering data for "reboosting" the ISS. After undocking, Atlantis performed a fly-around of Mir, leaving Linenger aboard the station.[15][30]

Osmalony w czasie pożaru panel na pokładzie stacji Mir.

During his Increment, Linenger became the first American to conduct a spacewalk from a foreign space station and the first to test the Russian-built Orlan-M spacesuit alongside Russian cosmonaut Vasili Tsibliyev. All three crewmembers of expedition EO-23 performed a "fly-around" in the Soyuz spacecraft, first undocking from one docking port of the station, then manually flying to and redocking the capsule at a different location. This made Linenger the first American to undock from a space station aboard two different spacecraft (Space Shuttle and Soyuz).[19]

Linenger and his Russian crewmates Vasili Tsibliyev and Aleksandr Lazutkin faced several difficulties during the mission. These included the most severe fire aboard an orbiting spacecraft (caused by a backup oxygen-generating device), failures of various on board systems, a near collision with a Progress resupply cargo ship during a long-distance manual docking system test and a total loss of station electrical power. The power failure also caused a loss of attitude control, which led to an uncontrolled "tumble" through space.[1][6][7][15]

The next NASA astronaut to stay on Mir was Michael Foale. Foale and Russian mission specialist Elena Kondakova boarded Mir from Atlantis on mission STS-84. The STS-84 crew transferred 249 items between the two spacecraft, along with water, experiment samples, supplies and hardware. One of the first items transferred to Mir was an Elektron oxygen-generating unit. Atlantis was stopped three times while backing away during the undocking sequence on May 21. The aim was to collect data from a European sensor device designed for future rendezvous of ESA's Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) with the International Space Station.[15][31]

Uszkodzone po zderzeniu z bezzałogowym statkiem kosmicznym Progress panele słoneczne zamontowane na module Spektr.

Foale's Increment proceeded fairly normally until June 25, when a resupply ship collided with solar arrays on the Spektr module during the second test of the Progress manual docking system, TORU. The module's outer shell was hit and holed, which caused the station to lose pressure. This was the first on-orbit depressurization in the history of spaceflight. The crew quickly cut cables leading to the module and closed Spektr's hatch in order to prevent the need to abandon the station in their Soyuz lifeboat. Their efforts stabilized the station's air pressure, whilst the pressure in Spektr, containing many of Foale's experiments and personal effects, dropped to a vacuum. Fortunately, food, water and other vital supplies were stored in other modules, and salvage and replanning effort by Foale and the science community minimized the loss of research data and capability.[6][15]

In an effort to restore some of the power and systems lost following the isolation of Spektr and to attempt to locate the leak, Mir's new commander Anatoly Solovyev and flight engineer Pavel Vinogradov carried out a salvage operation later in the mission. They entered the empty module during a so-called "IVA" spacewalk, inspecting the condition of hardware and running cables through a special hatch from Spektr's systems to the rest of the station. Following these first investigations, Foale and Solovyev conducted a 6-hour EVA on the surface of Spektr to inspect the damaged module.[15][32]

Widok na stację Mir z okna wahadłowca Atlantis, ukazujący poszczególne moduły stacji oraz dokujący statek Sojuz.

After these incidents, the US Congress and NASA considered whether to abandon the program out of concern for astronauts' safety but NASA administrator Daniel Goldin decided to continue the program.[7] The next flight to Mir, STS-86, brought Increment astronaut David Wolf to the station.

STS-86 performed the seventh Shuttle–Mir docking, the last of 1997. During Atlantis's stay crew members Titov and Parazynski conducted the first joint US–Russian extravehicular activity during a Shuttle mission, and the first in which a Russian wore a US spacesuit. During the five-hour spacewalk, the pair affixed a 121 lb (Błąd: Zła jednostka docelowa. Zobacz konwertowane jednostki.) Solar Array Cap to the Docking Module, for a future attempt by crew members to seal off the leak in Spektr's hull. The mission returned Foale to Earth, along with samples, hardware, and an old Elektron oxygen generator, and dropped Wolf off on the Station ready for his 128 day Increment. Wolf had originally been scheduled to be the final Mir astronaut, but was chosen to go on the Increment instead of astronaut Wendy Lawrence. Lawrence was deemed ineligible for flight because of a change in Russian requirements after the Progress supply vehicle collision. The new rules required that all Mir crew members should be trained and ready for spacewalks, but a Russian spacesuit could not be prepared for Lawrence in time for launch.[15][33]

Lądowanie wahadłowca Discovery kończące misję STS-91 i zamykające program Shuttle–Mir.

Zakończenie Fazy Pierwszej (1998)[edytuj | edytuj kod]

The final year of Phase One began with the flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-89. The mission delivered Cosmonaut Salizhan Sharipov to Mir and replaced David Wolf with Andy Thomas, following Wolf's 119 day Increment.[15][34]

During his Increment, the last of the program, Thomas worked on 27 science investigations into areas of advanced technology, Earth sciences, human life sciences, microgravity research, and ISS risk mitigation. His stay on Mir, considered the smoothest of the entire Phase One program, featured weekly "Letters from the Outpost" from Thomas and passed two milestones for length of spaceflight—815 consecutive days in space by American astronauts since the launch of Shannon Lucid on the STS-76 mission in March 1996, and 907 days of Mir occupancy by American astronauts dating back to Norman Thagard's trip to Mir in March 1995.[15][35]

Thomas returned to Earth on the final Shuttle–Mir mission, STS-91. The mission closed out Phase One, with the EO-25 and STS-91 crews transferring water to Mir and exchanging almost 4700 lb (2131,88 kg) of cargo experiments and supplies between the two spacecraft. Long-term American experiments that had been on board Mir were also moved into Discovery. Hatches were closed for undocking at 9:07 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT) on June 8 and the spacecraft separated at 12:01 p.m. EDT that day.[15][36][37]

Three modules linked in a linear arrangement float in space with the Earth in the background. The top module is a metallic cylinder with a large white circle visible on it and a black cone at either end. The two lower modules are cylindrical and covered in white insulation, and have two blue solar arrays projecting from each. A smaller, brown spacecraft is docked to the lower module.
Mir's legacy—the core modules of the International Space Station, Phase Two of the ISS program

Faza Druga i Trzecia: ISS (1998–2020)[edytuj | edytuj kod]

 Osobny artykuł: Międzynarodowa Stacja Kosmiczna.

Faza Pierwsza programu zakończyła się w momencie wylądowania wahadłowca Discovery 12 czerwca 1998 roku. Zdobyte podczas trwania programu doświadczenie zostało następnie wykorzystane w Fazie Drugiej - początkowym etapom konstruowania Międzynarodowej Stacji Kosmicznej.

With the landing of Discovery on June 12, 1998, the Phase One program concluded. Techniques and equipment developed during the program assisted the development of Phase Two: initial assembly of the International Space Station (ISS). Szablon:As of, the ISS consists of ten pressurized modules and a large truss structure, which makes it the largest spacecraft ever assembled. The arrival of the Destiny Laboratory Module in 2001 marked the end of Phase Two and the start of Phase Three, the final outfitting of the station, currently in progress.[38]

The completed station will consist of five laboratories and be able to support six crew members. With over 1000 m3 (Błąd: Zła jednostka konwertowana. Zobacz konwertowane jednostki.) of pressurized volume and a mass of 40 0000 kg the completed station will be almost twice the size of the combined Shuttle–Mir spacecraft. Phases Two and Three are intended to continue both international cooperation in space and zero-gravity scientific research, particularly regarding long-duration spaceflight. The results of this research will provide considerable information for long-duration expeditions to the Moon and flights to Mars.[39]

Following the intentional deorbiting of Mir on March 23, 2001, the ISS became the only space station in orbit around Earth. Mir's legacy lives on in the station, bringing together five space agencies in the cause of exploration and allowing those space agencies to prepare for their next leap into space, to the Moon, Mars and beyond.[40]

Controversy[edytuj | edytuj kod]

A man holding a piece of hose floats in front of a selection of transient space station hardware. He is wearing a gray-and-yellow plastic mask over his mouth and nose, a pair of goggles above his eyes, and a blue jumpsuit with a name patch on it.
Astronaut Jerry Linenger wearing a respirator mask following the 1997 fire aboard Mir

Safety and scientific return[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Criticism of the program was primarily concerned with the safety of the aging Mir, particularly following the fire aboard the station and collision with the Progress supply vessel in 1997.[7]

The fire, caused by the malfunction of a backup solid-fuel oxygen generator (SFOG), burned for, according to various sources, between 90 seconds and 14 minutes, and produced large amounts of toxic smoke that filled the station for around 45 minutes. This forced the crew to don respirators, but some of the respirator masks initially worn were broken. Fire extinguishers mounted on the walls of the modules were immovable. The fire occurred during a crew rotation, and as such there were six men aboard the station rather than the usual three. Access to one of the docked Soyuz lifeboats was blocked, which would have prevented escape by half of the crew. A similar incident had occurred on an earlier Mir expedition, although in that case the SFOG burned for only a few seconds.[6][7]

The near-miss and collision incidents presented further safety issues. Both were caused by failure of the same piece of equipment, the TORU manual docking system, which was undergoing tests at the time. The tests were called in order to gauge the performance of long-distance docking in order to enable the cash-strapped Russians to remove the expensive Kurs automatic docking system from the Progress ships.

The accidents also added to the increasingly vocal criticism of the aging station's reliability. Astronaut Blaine Hammond claimed that his safety concerns about Mir were ignored by NASA officials, and that records of safety meetings "disappeared from a locked vault".[41] Mir was originally designed to fly for five years but eventually flew for three times that length of time. During Phase One and afterward, the station was showing her age—constant computer crashes, loss of power, uncontrolled tumbles through space and leaking pipes were an ever-present concern for crews. Various breakdowns of Mir's Elektron oxygen-generating system were also a concern. These breakdowns led crews to become increasingly reliant on the SFOG systems that caused the fire in 1997. SFOG systems continue to be a problem aboard the ISS.[6]

Another issue of controversy was the scale of its actual scientific return, particularly following the loss of the Spektr science module. Astronauts, managers and various members of the press all complained that the benefits of the program were outweighed by the risks associated with it, especially considering the fact that most of the US science experiments had been contained within the holed module. As such, a large amount of American research was inaccessible, reducing the science that could be performed.[42] The safety issues caused NASA to reconsider the future of the program at various times. The agency eventually decided to continue and came under fire from various areas of the press regarding that decision.[43]

Attitudes[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Attitudes of the Russian space program and NASA towards Phase One were also of concern to the astronauts involved. Because of Russia's financial issues, many workers at the TsUP felt that the mission hardware and continuation of Mir was more important than the lives of the cosmonauts aboard the station. As such the program was run very differently compared to American programs: cosmonauts had their days being planned for them to the minute, actions (such as docking) which would be performed manually by shuttle pilots were all carried out automatically, and cosmonauts had their pay docked if they made any errors during their flights. Americans learned aboard Skylab and earlier space missions that this level of control was not productive and had since made mission plans more flexible. The Russians, however, would not budge, and many felt that significant work time was lost because of this.[6][44]

Following the two accidents in 1997, astronaut Jerry Linenger felt that the Russian authorities attempted a cover-up to downplay the significance of the incidents, fearing that the Americans would back out of the partnership. A large part of this "cover-up" was the seeming impression that the American astronauts were not in fact "partners" aboard the station, but were instead "guests". NASA staff did not find out for several hours about the fire and collision and found themselves kept out of decision-making processes. NASA became more involved when Russian mission controllers intended to place blame for the accident entirely on Vasily Tsibliyev. It was only after the application of significant pressure from NASA that this stance was changed.[6][7]

At various times during the program, NASA managers and personnel found themselves limited in terms of resources and manpower, particularly as Phase Two geared up, and had a hard time getting anywhere with NASA administration. One particular area of contention was with crew assignments to missions. Many astronauts allege that the method of selection prevented the most skilled people from performing roles they were best-suited for.[6][7][45]

Finances[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Since the breakup of the Soviet Union a few years earlier, the Russian economy had been slowly collapsing and the budget for space exploration was reduced by around 80%. Before and after Phase One, a great deal of Russia's space finances came from flights of astronauts from Europe and other countries, with one Japanese TV station paying $9.5 million to have one of their reporters, Toyohiro Akiyama, flown aboard Mir.[6] By the start of Phase One, cosmonauts regularly found their missions extended to save money on launchers, the six-yearly flights of the Progress had been reduced to three, and there was a distinct possibility of Mir being sold for around $500 million.[6]

Critics argued that the $325 million contract NASA had with Russia was the only thing keeping the Russian space program alive, and only the Space Shuttle was keeping Mir aloft. NASA also had to pay hefty fees for training manuals and equipment used by astronauts training at Star City.[7] Problems came to a head when ABC's Nightline revealed that there was a distinct possibility of embezzlement of American finances by the Russian authorities in order to build a suite of new cosmonaut houses in Moscow, or else that the building projects were being funded by the Russian Mafia. NASA administrator Goldin was invited onto Nightline to defend the homes but he refused to comment. NASA's office for external affairs was quoted as saying that "What Russia does with its own money is their business."[6][46]

Przypisy[edytuj | edytuj kod]

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i David Harland: The Story of Space Station Mir. NowyJork: Springer-Verlag New York Inc, 30 listopada 2004. ISBN 978-0-387-23011-5. (ang.). Błąd w przypisach: Nieprawidłowy znacznik <ref>; nazwę „SSSM” zdefiniowano więcej niż raz z różną zawartością
  2. ↑ Donna Heivilin: Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research. Government Accountability Office, June 21, 1994. [dostęp November 3, 2006].
  3. ↑ Kim Dismukes: Shuttle–Mir History/Background/How "Phase 1" Started. NASA, April 4, 2004. [dostęp April 12, 2007].
  4. ↑ Kim Dismukes: Shuttle–Mir History/Welcome/Goals. NASA, April 4, 2004. [dostęp April 12, 2007].
  5. ↑ George C. Nield & Pavel Mikhailovich Vorobiev. Phase One Program Joint Report. , January 1999. NASA. [dostęp March 30, 2007]. 
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bryan Burrough: Dragonfly: NASA and the Crisis Aboard Mir. Fourth Estate Ltd., January 7, 1998. ISBN 978-1841150871.
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Jerry Linenger: Off the Planet: Surviving Five Perilous Months Aboard the Space Station Mir. McGraw-Hill, January 1, 2001. ISBN 978-0071372305.
  8. ↑ David S. F. Portree. Mir Hardware Heritage. , March 1995. NASA. [dostęp March 30, 2007]. 
  9. ↑ a b Jim Wilson: Shuttle Basics. NASA, March 5, 2006. [dostęp September 21, 2009].
  10. ↑ a b David M. Harland: The Story of the Space Shuttle. Springer-Praxis, July 5, 2004.
  11. ↑ a b Sue McDonald. Mir Mission Chronicle. , December 1998. [dostęp March 30, 2007]. 
  12. ↑ Kim Dismukes: Shuttle–Mir History/Spacecraft/Space Shuttle Orbiter. NASA, April 4, 2004. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  13. ↑ Justin Ray: Columbia Weight Loss Plan. Spaceflight Now, April 14, 2000. [dostęp October 29, 2009].
  14. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  15. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Shuttle–Mir History/Shuttle Flights and Mir Increments. NASA. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  16. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-60 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  17. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-63 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  18. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  19. ↑ a b List of Mir Expeditions
  20. ↑ David Scott, Alexei Leonov: Two Sides of the Moon. Pocket Books, April 30, 2005. ISBN 978-0743450676.
  21. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-71 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  22. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  23. ↑ CSA – STS-74 – Daily Reports. Canadian Space Agency, October 30, 1999. [dostęp September 17, 2009].
  24. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-74 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  25. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  26. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  27. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-76 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  28. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  29. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-79 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  30. ↑ a b Jim Dumoulin: STS-81 Mission Summary. NASA, 29 czerwca 2001. [dostęp 30 Marca 2007].
  31. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-84 Mission Summary. NASA, 29 czerwca, 2001.
  32. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  33. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-86 Mission Summary. 2001-06-29 29 czerwca 2001(dts). [dostęp 2007-03-30 30 marca 2007(dts)].
  34. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-89 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  35. ↑ Andrew Thomas: Letters from the Outpost. NASA, September 2001. [dostęp April 15, 2007].
  36. ↑ Jim Dumoulin: STS-91 Mission Summary. NASA, June 29, 2001. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  37. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  38. ↑ Gerald Esquivel: ISS Phases I, II and III. NASA, March 23, 2003. [dostęp June 27, 2007].
  39. ↑ NASA – International Space Station. 2007. [dostęp March 30, 2007].
  40. ↑ Michael Cabbage: NASA outlines plans for Moon and Mars. Orlando Sentinel, July 31, 2005. [dostęp September 17, 2009].
  41. ↑ Alan Levin: Some question NASA experts' objectivity. USA Today, February 6, 2003.
  42. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  43. ↑ Błąd w składni szablonu {{Cytuj stronę}}. Brak podanego adresu cytowanej strony (parametr url=|).
  44. ↑ Leland F. Belew: 9 The Third Manned Period. [w:] SP-400 Skylab, Our First Space Station [on-line]. NASA, 1977. [dostęp April 6, 2007].
  45. ↑ Ben Evans: Space Shuttle Challenger: Ten Journeys into the Unknown. Warwickshire, United Kingdom: Springer-Praxis, 2007. ISBN 978-0387463551.
  46. ↑ SpaceViews Update 97 May 15: Policy. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, May 15, 1997. [dostęp April 5, 2007].

External links[edytuj | edytuj kod]

Program Shuttle-Mir
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Szablon:Mir modules Szablon:Manned Mir flight

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