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XIX wiek. nie miałem siły na tłumaczenie tego po raz kolejny, reszta przyjdzie ze starej wersji.
najgorsze pozostawiam na koniec; nowy artykuł czeka w kolejce.
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# <s>elementy główne</s>[zrobione --[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]] ([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|dyskusja]]) 11:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)]<s>, usuwanie opisów linków i dodawanie <em>(en)</em></s>[anulowane 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)]
# <s>elementy główne</s>[zrobione --[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]] ([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|dyskusja]]) 11:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)]<s>, usuwanie opisów linków i dodawanie <em>(en)</em></s>[anulowane 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)]
# <s>tłumaczenie nagłówków (18/18)</s>[zrobione --[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]] ([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|dyskusja]]) 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)]
# <s>tłumaczenie nagłówków (18/18)</s>[zrobione --[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]] ([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|dyskusja]]) 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)]
# tłumaczenie treści (15/18) --<b>[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]]</b> <sup><i>([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|zaspamuj]] | [[Specjalna:Wkład/Kwpolska|wkład]])</i></sup> 22:07, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)
# tłumaczenie treści (17/18) --<b>[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]]</b> <sup><i>([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|zaspamuj]] | [[Specjalna:Wkład/Kwpolska|wkład]])</i></sup> 22:07, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)
# <s>tłumaczenie przypisów[dodane 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)] (0/81)</s>[anulowane 12:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST) – nie ma potrzeby tłumaczenia; pozostawiony zostanie oryginał]
# <s>tłumaczenie przypisów[dodane 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)] (0/81)</s>[anulowane 12:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST) – nie ma potrzeby tłumaczenia; pozostawiony zostanie oryginał]
--[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]] ([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|dyskusja]]) 11:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)
--[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]] ([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|dyskusja]]) 11:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)
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== [[XXI wiek]] ==
== [[XXI wiek]] ==
* 2003– famine in [[Sudan]]/Darfur ([[Darfur conflict]])
* 2003 – głód w [[Sudan]]ie/Darfurze ([[Konflikt w Darfurze]])
* 2005 - [[kryzys żywnościowy w Malawi]]
* [[2005 Malawi food crisis]]
* 2005–06 - [[kryzys żywnościowy w Nigrze]]
* [[2005–06 Niger food crisis]]
* 2006 - [[kryzys żywnościowy na Półwyspie Somalijskim]]
* [[2006 Horn of Africa food crisis]]
* [[2008]]– [[Myanmar]] food crisis. The [[Cyclone Nargis]] devastated [[Burma]]'s major [[rice]]-producing region<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/05/15/asia/food.php Food crisis looms in Myanmar], International Herald Tribune</ref>.
* 2008 – kryzys żywnościowy w [[Birma|Birmie]]. [[Cyklon Nargis]] zdewastował główny rejon produkcji [[ryż]]u w Birmie<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/05/15/asia/food.php Food crisis looms in Myanmar], International Herald Tribune</ref>.
* [[2008]]– [[North Korean famine]]<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/17/korea.food/ North Korea at risk of famine, says U.N.], CNN.com</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1737780,00.html The Next Great North Korean Famine], TIME</ref>
* 2008 – [[kryzys żywnościowy w Korei Północnej]]<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/17/korea.food/ North Korea at risk of famine, says U.N.], CNN.com</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1737780,00.html The Next Great North Korean Famine], TIME</ref>
* [[2008]]– [[Horn of Africa]] food crisis<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/2083074/Ethiopia-facing-new-famine-with-4.5-million-children-in-danger-of-starvation.html Ethiopia facing new famine with 4.5 million children in danger of starvation ], Telegraph</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/17/world/africa/17somalia.html |title=Famine Looms as Wars Rend Horn of Africa |date=May 17, 2008 |newspaper=New York Times | first=Jeffrey | last=Gettleman | accessdate=May 8, 2010 |postscript=<!--None-->}}.</ref>
* 2008 – kryzys żywnościowy na [[Półwysep Somalijski|Półwyspie Somalijskim]]<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/2083074/Ethiopia-facing-new-famine-with-4.5-million-children-in-danger-of-starvation.html Ethiopia facing new famine with 4.5 million children in danger of starvation ], Telegraph</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/17/world/africa/17somalia.html |title=Famine Looms as Wars Rend Horn of Africa |date=May 17, 2008 |newspaper=New York Times | first=Jeffrey | last=Gettleman | accessdate=May 8, 2010 |postscript=<!--None-->}}.</ref>
* [[2008]]– [[Afghanistan]] food crisis<ref>[http://www.msnp.admsn.com/id/24422672/ Food crisis leaves Afghans desperate], msnp.adcom</ref>
* 2008 – kryzys żywnościowy w [[Afganistan]]ie<ref>[http://www.msnp.admsn.com/id/24422672/ Food crisis leaves Afghans desperate], msnp.adcom</ref>
* [[2008]]– [[Bangladesh]] food crisis<ref>[http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/20080412/food-crisis-looms-in-bangladesh.htm Food Crisis Looms in Bangladesh], International Business Times</ref>
* 2008 – kryzys żywnościowy w [[Bangladesz]]u<ref>[http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/20080412/food-crisis-looms-in-bangladesh.htm Food Crisis Looms in Bangladesh], International Business Times</ref>
* [[2008]]– [[East Africa]] food crisis<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=72&ReportId=77872 In-depth | Food Crisis: Status and Impacts], IRIN</ref>
* 2008 – kryzys żywnościowy w [[Afryka Wschodnia|Afryce Wschodniej]]<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=72&ReportId=77872 In-depth | Food Crisis: Status and Impacts], IRIN</ref>
* [[2008]]– [[Tajikistan]] food crisis<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav100708.shtml Tajikistan: Almost One-Third of the Population Is in Danger of Going Hungry This Winter], EurasiaNet</ref>
* 2008 – kryzys żywnościowy w [[Tadżykistan]]ie<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav100708.shtml Tajikistan: Almost One-Third of the Population Is in Danger of Going Hungry This Winter], EurasiaNet</ref>
* [[2009]]– [[Kenya]] food crisis<ref>[http://www.theirc.org/news/national-food-emergency-grips-kenya0120.html National Food Emergency Grips Kenya]. 20 Jan 2009.</ref> 10 million Kenyans face starvation<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/world/africa/01kenya.html?_r=1 Starvation and Strife Menace Torn Kenya]. The New York Times. February 28, 2009.</ref>.
* 2009 – kryzys żywnościowy w [[Kenia|Kenii]]<ref>[http://www.theirc.org/news/national-food-emergency-grips-kenya0120.html National Food Emergency Grips Kenya]. 20 Jan 2009.</ref> 10 million Kenyans face starvation<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/world/africa/01kenya.html?_r=1 Starvation and Strife Menace Torn Kenya]. The New York Times. February 28, 2009.</ref>.


== Zobacz też ==
== Zobacz też ==
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= [[Handel elektroniczny]] =
prace nie zostały jeszcze rozpoczęte.
planowany start prac: 28 czerwca 2010. poniżej tekst oryginalny z en.wiki.
--<b>[[Wikipedysta:Kwpolska|Kwpolska]]</b> <sup><i>([[Dyskusja wikipedysty:Kwpolska|zaspamuj]] | [[Specjalna:Wkład/Kwpolska|wkład]])</i></sup> 13:55, 27 cze 2010 (CEST)
<hr />

'''Electronic commerce''', commonly known as '''e-commerce''' or '''eCommerce''',or e-business consists of the buying and selling of [[product (business)|product]]s or [[Service (economics)|service]]s over electronic systems such as the Internet and other [[computer network]]s. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in [[electronic funds transfer]], [[supply chain management]], [[Internet marketing]], [[online transaction processing]], [[electronic data interchange]] (EDI), [[inventory management]] systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the [[World Wide Web]] at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a wider range of technologies such as [[e-mail]] as well.

A large percentage of electronic commerce is conducted entirely electronically for [[virtual]] items such as access to premium content on a website, but most electronic commerce involves the transportation of physical items in some way. Online retailers are sometimes known as [[e-tailer]]s and online retail is sometimes known as '''e-tail'''. Almost all big retailers have electronic commerce presence on the [[World Wide Web]].

Electronic commerce that is conducted between businesses is referred to as [[business-to-business]] or B2B. B2B can be open to all interested parties (e.g. [[commodity exchange]]) or limited to specific, pre-qualified participants ([[private electronic market]]). Electronic commerce that is conducted between businesses and consumers, on the other hand, is referred to as [[business-to-consumer]] or [[B2C]]. This is the type of electronic commerce conducted by companies such as [[Amazon.com]]. [[Online shopping]] is a form of electronic commerce where the buyer is directly online to the seller's computer usually via the internet. There is no intermediary service. The sale and purchase transaction is completed electronically and interactively in real-time such as Amazon.com for new books. If an intermediary is present, then the sale and purchase transaction is called electronic commerce such as [[eBay.com]].

Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of [[e-business]]. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of the business transactions.

==History==
====Early development====
The meaning of electronic commerce has changed over the last 30 years. Originally, electronic commerce meant the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technology such as [[Electronic Data Interchange]] (EDI) and [[Electronic Funds Transfer]] (EFT). These were both introduced in the late 1970s, allowing businesses to send commercial documents like [[purchase order]]s or [[invoice]]s electronically. The growth and acceptance of [[credit cards]], [[automated teller machines]] (ATM) and [[telephone banking]] in the 1980s were also forms of electronic commerce. Another form of e-commerce was the airline reservation system typified by [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]] in the USA and [[Travicom]] in the UK.

[[Online shopping]], a form of electronic commerce, pre-dates the [[IBM PC]], [[Microsoft]], [[Apple Inc.]] and the [[Internet]]/www. In 1979 [[Michael Aldrich]],an English inventor, connected a modified 26" color domestic television to a real-time transaction processing computer via a domestic telephone line and invented online shopping.<ref>2008 Aldrich.M ''The Inventor's Story'' Aldrich Archive, University of Brighton [http://www.aldricharchive.com/inventors_story.html]</ref> The first recorded B2B was [[Thomson Holidays]] 1981<ref>1988 Palmer C ''Using IT for competitive advantage at Thomson Holidays'' Long Range Planning Vol21 No6 p26-29 Institute of Strategic Studies Journal. London. Pergamon Press [now Elsevier B.V. December 1988. Original story at [http://www.aldricharchive.com/downloads/Thomson.pdf]</ref> The first recorded B2C was [[Gateshead]] SIS/[[Tesco]] in 1984.<ref>1984''Videotex takes Gateshead Teleshopping into the home'' The Incorporated Engineer, Journal of the IEEE. London September 1984 p6 [http://www.aldricharchive.com/downloads/videotex%20takes%20gateshead.pdf]</ref> The world's first recorded online home shopper was Mrs Jane Snowball,72, of Gateshead, England in May 1984.<ref>2008 Aldrich M ''Finding Mrs Snowball'' Aldrich Archive, University of Brighton [http://www.aldricharchive.com/snowball.html] An interview with Mrs Snowball by Lawrence McGinty of ITN London in 1984 can be seen here</ref> During the 1980s Aldrich sold many systems mainly in the UK including [[Ford]], [[Peugeot]] [then trading as Talbot Motors], [[General Motors]] and [[Nissan]].<ref>[http://www.aldricharchive.com/pioneer_cs.html ''Pioneer Case Studies'' Aldrich Archive, University of Brighton]</ref> The Nissan system of 1984/5 was revolutionary. It enabled a car buyer on a dealer's lot to both buy and finance the car, including credit check, online.<ref>1988 ''Behind the Driving Wheel at Nissan'' Information Management, London [http://www.aldricharchive.com/downloads/Nissan.pdf]</ref> Aldrich invented both the online shopping system and the business rationale for using it. His system was copied and his ideas were plagiarised. His 1980s systems were as fast as 2010 internet shopping systems. They used dial-up and leased telephone lines as broadband was not available. He never patented his shopping system and his ideas are the basis of internet shopping.

From the 1990s onwards, electronic commerce would additionally include [[enterprise resource planning]] systems (ERP), [[data mining]] and [[data warehousing]].

An early example of many-to-many electronic commerce in physical goods was the [[Boston Computer Exchange]], a marketplace for used computers launched in 1982. An early online information marketplace, including online consulting, was the [[American Information Exchange]], another pre Internet{{Clarify|date=March 2009}} online system introduced in 1991.

In 1990, [[Tim Berners-Lee]] invented the [[WorldWideWeb]] [[web browser]] and transformed an academic telecommunication network into a worldwide everyman everyday communication system called internet/www. Commercial enterprise on the [[Internet]] was strictly prohibited until 1991.<ref>[[Kevin Kelly (editor)|Kevin Kelly]]: [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/tech.html?pg=2 We Are the Web] [[Wired magazine]], Issue 13.08, August 2005</ref> Although the Internet became popular worldwide around 1994 when the first internet online shopping started, it took about five years to introduce security protocols and [[DSL]] allowing continual connection to the Internet. By the end of 2000, many European and American business companies offered their services through the [[World Wide Web]]. Since then people began to associate a word "[[ecommerce]]" with the ability of purchasing various goods through the Internet using secure protocols and electronic payment services.

===Timeline===
* 1979: [[Michael Aldrich]] invented [[online shopping]]
* 1981: [[Thomson Holidays]], UK is first B2B online shopping
* 1982: [[Minitel]] was introduced nationwide in [[France]] by [[France Telecom]] and used for online ordering.
* 1984: [[Gateshead]] SIS/[[Tesco]] is first B2C online shopping and Mrs Snowball, 72, is the first online home shopper
* 1985: [[Nissan]] UK sells cars and finance with credit checking to customers online from dealers' lots.
* 1987: [[Swreg]] begins to provide software and shareware authors means to sell their products online through an electronic [[Merchant account]].
* 1990: [[Tim Berners-Lee]] writes the first web browser, [[WorldWideWeb]], using a [[NeXTSTEP|NeXT]] computer.
* 1992: J.H. Snider and Terra Ziporyn publish Future Shop: How New Technologies Will Change the Way We Shop and What We Buy. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-06359-8.
* 1994: [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]] releases the Navigator browser in October under the code name [[Mozilla]]. [[Pizza Hut]] offers online ordering on its Web page. The first online bank opens. Attempts to offer flower delivery and magazine subscriptions online. [[Pornographic|Adult]] materials also become commercially available, as do cars and bikes. [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]] 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] encryption that made transactions secure.
* 1995: Jeff Bezos launches [[Amazon.com]] and the first commercial-free 24 hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK and [[NetRadio]] start broadcasting. [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]] and [[Cisco Systems|Cisco]] begin to aggressively use Internet for commercial transactions. [[eBay]] is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb.
* 1998: [[United States Postal Service#PC postage|Electronic postal stamps]] can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web.
* 1999: [[Business.com]] sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, which was purchased in 1997 for US $149,000. The peer-to-peer filesharing software [[Napster]] launches. [[ATG Stores]] launches to sell decorative items for the home online.
* 2000: The [[dot-com bust]].
* 2002: [[eBay]] acquires [[PayPal]] for $1.5 billion.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://investor.ebay.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=84142|title=eBay acquires PayPal |publisher= eBay}}</ref> Niche retail companies [[CSN Stores]] and [[NetShops]] are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted domains, rather than a central portal.
* 2003: [[Amazon.com]] posts first yearly profit.
* 2007: [[Business.com]] acquired by [[R.H. Donnelley]] for $345 million.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://domainnamewire.com/2007/07/26/rh-donnelley-acquires-businesscom-for-345m/|title=Press Release |publisher= Domain Name Wire}}</ref>
* 2009: [[Zappos.com]] acquired by [[Amazon.com]] for $928 million.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://techcrunch.com/2009/07/22/amazon-buys-zappos/|title=Press Release |publisher= TechCrunch}}</ref> Retail Convergence, operator of private sale website RueLaLa.com, acquired by [[GSI Commerce]] for $180 million, plus up to $170 million in earn-out payments based on performance through 2012.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBNG53538820091027/|title=Press Release |publisher= Reuters}}</ref>
* 2010: US eCommerce and Online Retail sales projected to reach $173 billion, an increase of 7 percent over 2009.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://techcrunch.com/2010/03/08/forrester-forecast-online-retail-sales-will-grow-to-250-billion-by-2014/|title=US Online Retail Forecast, 2009 To 2014|publisher= Forrester Research, Inc.}}</ref>

==Business applications==
Some common applications related to electronic commerce are the following:
* [[Email]]
* [[Enterprise content management]]
* [[Instant messaging]]
* [[Newsgroups]]
* [[Online shopping]] and order tracking
* [[Online banking]]
* [[Online office suite]]s
* Domestic and international [[payment system]]s
* [[Shopping cart software]]
* [[Teleconferencing]]
* [[Electronic ticket]]s

==Government regulations==
In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online advertising and consumer [[privacy]]. The [[CAN-SPAM Act of 2003]] establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The [[Federal Trade Commission Act]] regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive.<ref>{{Cite web| url= http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/buspubs/ruleroad.shtm |title= Advertising and Marketing on the Internet: Rules of the Road |publisher= [[Federal Trade Commission]]}}</ref> Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers’ personal information.<ref>{{Cite web| url= http://www.ftc.gov/privacy/privacyinitiatives/promises.html |title= Enforcing Privacy Promises: Section 5 of the FTC Act |publisher= [[Federal Trade Commission]]}}</ref> As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e-commerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.

The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the [[Controlled Substances Act]] to address [[Online pharmacy|online pharmacies]].<ref>{{Cite web| url= http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h110-6353&tab=summary |title= H.R. 6353: Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008 |publisher= [[Govtrack]]}}</ref>

==Forms==

Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering "digital" content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to "meta" services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce.

On the consumer level, electronic commerce is mostly conducted on the World Wide Web. An individual can go online to purchase anything from books or groceries, to expensive items like real estate. Another example would be online banking, i.e. online bill payments, buying stocks, transferring funds from one account to another, and initiating wire payment to another country. All of these activities can be done with a few strokes of the keyboard.

On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce today.

==See also==
*[[Dot-com company]]
*[[e-Government|E-government]]
*[[Electronic business|E-business]]
*[[Electronic money]]
*[[Internet business]]
*[[Mobile commerce]]
*[[Paid content]]
*[[Social commerce]]
*[[Online shopping]]
*[[B2B e-Marketplace]]
*[[Comparison of shopping cart software]]
*[[Non-Store Retailing]]
* [[Internet Economy]]
* [[Digital economy]]
* [[Virtual economy]]

== Uwagi ==
<references/>

{{Przypisy}}
* {{cite book
| last = Chaudhury | first = Abijit
| coauthors = Jean-Pierre Kuilboer
| year = 2002
| title = [[e-Business]] and e-Commerce Infrastructure
| publisher = McGraw-Hill
| isbn = 0-07-247875-6
}}
*{{Cite journal
| last1 = Frieden| first1 = Jonathan D.
| author1-link = Jonathan D. Frieden
| last2 = Roche| first2 = Sean Patrick
| author2-link = Sean Patrick Roche
| title = E-Commerce: Legal Issues of the Online Retailer in Virginia
| journal = Richmond Journal of Law & Technology
| volume = 13
| issue = 2
| date = 2006-12-19
| url = http://law.richmond.edu/jolt/v13i2/article5.pdf|format=PDF
| postscript = <!--None-->}}
*{{Cite journal
| last1 = Graham| first1 = Mark
| title = Warped Geographies of Development: The Internet and Theories of Economic Development
| journal = Geography Compass
| volume = 2
| issue = 3
| year = 2008
| url = http://geospace.co.uk/files/compass.pdf|format=PDF
| doi = 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00093.x
| pages = 771
| postscript = <!--None-->}}
* [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2003-12-22-shoppers_x.htm Kessler, M. (2003). More shoppers proceed to checkout online. Retrieved January 13, 2004]
* {{cite book
| last = Nissanoff | first = Daniel
| year = 2006
| title = '''FutureShop''': How the New Auction Culture Will Revolutionize the Way We Buy, Sell and Get the Things We Really Want
| publisher = The Penguin Press
| isbn = 1-59420-077-7
| edition = Hardcover
| pages = 246 pages
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Seybold | first = Pat
| year = 2001
| title = Customers.com
| publisher = Crown Business Books (Random House)
| isbn = 0-609-60772-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Miller | first = Roger
| year = 2002
| title = The Legal and E-Commerce Environment Today
| publisher = Thomson Learning
| isbn = 0-324-06188-9
| edition = Hardcover
| pages = 741 pages
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
<!-- This is NOT the place to advertise your website. -->
{{wikibooks|The Information Age}}
{{wikibooks|E-Commerce and E-Business}}
*[http://business.gov/guides/e-commerce/ US Small Business Guide to E-Commerce Laws and Regulations]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Electronic Commerce}}
[[:Category:Electronic commerce| ]]
[[:Category:Marketing]]
[[:Category:Information technology management]]
[[:Category:Web applications]]
[[:Category:Web development]]

[[ar:تجارة إلكترونية]]
[[az:Elektron ticarət]]
[[bg:Електронна търговия]]
[[cs:E-komerce]]
[[da:E-handel]]
[[de:Elektronischer Handel]]
[[et:E-kaubandus]]
[[es:Comercio electrónico]]
[[eu:Merkataritza elektroniko]]
[[fa:تجارت الکترونیک]]
[[fr:Commerce électronique]]
[[ko:전자 상업]]
[[id:Perdagangan elektronik]]
[[it:Commercio elettronico]]
[[he:מסחר אלקטרוני]]
[[kn:ಇ-ಕಾಮರ್ಸ್]]
[[lv:Elektroniskā komercija]]
[[lb:E-Commerce]]
[[lt:Elektroninė komercija]]
[[hu:E-kereskedelem]]
[[mk:Електронска трговија]]
[[nl:Electronic commerce]]
[[ja:電子商取引]]
[[pl:Handel elektroniczny]]
[[pt:Comércio eletrônico]]
[[ro:Comerț electronic]]
[[ru:Электронная коммерция]]
[[sk:E-commerce]]
[[sv:E-handel]]
[[th:พาณิชย์อิเล็กทรอนิกส์]]
[[tr:Elektronik ticaret]]
[[uk:Електронна комерція]]
[[vi:Thương mại điện tử]]
[[zh-yue:網上買賣]]
[[zh:电子商务]]

Wersja z 12:55, 27 cze 2010

DO ZROBIENIA: Handel elektroniczny

Lista klęsk głodu

To jest nieukończona wersja artykułu Lista klęsk głodu. Tłumaczenie artykułu OD NOWA planowane wykonywane jest w kilku fazach:

  1. elementy główne[zrobione --Kwpolska (dyskusja) 11:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)], usuwanie opisów linków i dodawanie (en)[anulowane 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)][odpowiedz]
  2. tłumaczenie nagłówków (18/18)[zrobione --Kwpolska (dyskusja) 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)][odpowiedz]
  3. tłumaczenie treści (17/18) --Kwpolska (zaspamuj | wkład) 22:07, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)[odpowiedz]
  4. tłumaczenie przypisów[dodane 12:33, 26 cze 2010 (CEST)] (0/81)[anulowane 12:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST) – nie ma potrzeby tłumaczenia; pozostawiony zostanie oryginał]

--Kwpolska (dyskusja) 11:58, 26 cze 2010 (CEST) [odpowiedz]

To jest niekompletna lista znanych głównych klęsk głodu, uporządkowanych według dat.

V wiek p.n.e

II wiek p.n.e

  • Pomiędzy 108 p.n.e i 1911 n.e. nie było mniej niż 1.828 głównych klęsk głodowych w Chinach, czyli prawie każdego roku jedna w różnych prowincjach; chociaż klęski głodu charakteryzowały się różnym stopniem nasilenia[1][2].

V wiek n.e.

VII wiek n.e.

VIII wiek

IX wiek

  • W 800–1000, sroga susza zabiła miliony Majów z powodu głodu i pragnienia i rozpoczęła zniszczenie ich cywilizacji[5].
  • Klęska w 809 famine in Frankish Empire[6]
  • 875–884 chłopski bunt w Chinach zainspirowany głodem; Huang Chao zdobył stolicę

X wiek

  • Klęska w 927 w Imperium Bizantyjskim
  • Klęska w 963–964 w Irlandii
  • Klęska w 968 w Egipcie; 500.000 zmarłych

XI wiek

  • Głód w 1005 w Anglii[7]. W średniowiecznej Anglii było 95 klęsk głodu.[8][9]
  • 1016 – Klęska w Europie[10]
  • 1022, 1033, 1052 – Wielkie klęski w Indiach, w których całe prowincje zostały zdepopulizowane
  • 1025 – klęska w Egipcie
  • 1030–1032 – głód we Francji
  • 1064–1072 – Siedmioroczny głód w Egipcie
  • 1051 – głód zmusił Tolteków do migracji z dotkniętych regionów, w których obecnie znajduje się centralny Meksyk[11]
  • 1066 - głód w Anglii
  • 1097 - głód w Palestynie; 500.000 zmarłych
  • 1097 - głód i dżuma we Francji; 100.000 zmarłych

XII wiek

  • 1199–1202 - głód w Egipcie

XIII wiek

XIV wiek

XV wiek

  • 1403–1404 - głód w Egipcie
  • 1441 - głód w Mayapan, Meksyk[17]
  • 1445 - głód w Korei
  • 1450–1454 - głód w Imperium Azteków
  • 1460–1461 - klęska głodu Kanshō w Japonii
  • 1481–1483 - głód we Francji

XVI wiek

XVII wiek

  • 1599-1600 - klęska głodu w Hiszpanii
  • 1601-1603 - jedna z najgorszych klęsk głodu w całej historii Rosji; głód zabił 100 000 mieszkańców Moskwy i prawie jedną trzecią mieszkańców Rosji; zobacz Klęska głodu w Rosji w latach 1601 - 1603[20][21]. Ta sama klęska głodu zabiła około połowy populacji Estonii.
  • 1611 - klęska głodu w Anatolii
  • 1618-1648 - klęski głodu w Europie wywołane Wojną Trzydziestoletnią
  • 1619 - klęska głodu w Japonii. W epoce Edo było 154 klęsk głodu, 21 z nich było rozpowszechnionych i ciężkich[22].
  • 1623-1624 - klęska głodu w Anglii
  • 1630-1632 - klęska głodu w Dekan w Indiach zabił 2 000 000 ludzi. Klęska głodu w północno-zachodnich Chinach przyczyniła się do upadku dynastii Ming w 1644 roku.
  • 1636 - klęska głodu w Hiszpanii
  • 1648-1660 - Polska straciła 1/3 swojej populacji w wyniku wojen, głodu i plag
  • 1649 - klęska głodu w północnej Anglii
  • 1650-1652 - klęska głodu we wschodniej Francji
  • 1651-1653 - klęska głodu w większej części Irlandii podczas Kampanii Cromwella w Irlandii[23]
  • 1661 - klęska głodu w Indiach, gdzie deszcz nie spadł przez dwa lata[24]
  • 1661-1662 - klęska głodu w Maroko
  • 1661-1662 - klęska głodu we Francji
  • 1669 - klęska głodu w Bengalu
  • 1680 - klęska głodu na Sardynii[25]
  • 1680 - klęska głodu w Japonii
  • lata 80. klęska głodu w Sahel
  • lata 90. klęska głodu w Szkocji, która zabiła 15% populacji
  • 1693-1694 - klęska głodu we Francji, która zabiła 2 miliony ludzi[26][27]
  • 1695-1697 - Wielki Głód w Estonii zabił około piątej części populacji Estonii (70 000 – 75 000 ludzi). Klęska głodu również dotknęła Szwecję (80 000 – 100 000 zmarłych)
  • 1696-1697 - klęska głodu w Finlandii zmiotła nieomal trzecią część populacji[28]

XVIII wiek

XIX wiek

Ofiary klęski głodu w Irlandii, 1845-1849

XX wiek

XXI wiek

Zobacz też

  1. ↑ China: Land of Famine (en)
  2. ↑ "Heaven, Observe!" – TIME
  3. ↑ A Brief History of Population
  4. ↑ Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages
  5. ↑ The Great Maya Droughts: Water, Life, and Death
  6. ↑ The Ninth wiek
  7. ↑ 1005: The People's Chronology
  8. ↑ Famines through history.
  9. ↑ Poor studies will always be with us
  10. ↑ Famine – LoveToKnow 1911
  11. ↑ The Facts of Malnutrition and Famine
  12. ↑ Portugal > History and Events
  13. ↑ Collapse: Chaco Canyon
  14. ↑ The Great Famine and the Black Death
  15. ↑ Projects and Events: 14th century
  16. ↑ Bidar District Important Historical Events
  17. ↑ Welcome to The Human Past
  18. ↑ Land and Society in Golden Age Castile
  19. ↑ The Dimension of Famine
  20. ↑ Boris Feodorovich Godunov
  21. ↑ Russia before Peter the Great
  22. ↑ A Chronology of Japanese History
  23. ↑ BBC – Northern Ireland – A Short History
  24. ↑ The 17th Century
  25. ↑ Italian States in the Seventeenth Century
  26. ↑ Andrew B. Appleby. Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age. „Journal of Interdisciplinary History”. 4 (10), s. 643–663, 1980. DOI: 10.2307/203063. 
  27. ↑ Cormac Ó Gráda, Chevet, Jean-Michel. Famine And Market In Ancient Régime France. „The Journal of Economic History”, s. 706–733, 2002. DOI: 10.1017/S0022050702001055. 
  28. ↑ Finland timeline
  29. ↑ The Dimension of Famine.
  30. ↑ The Little Ice Age in Europe
  31. ↑ Climatic fluctuation and natural disasters in Arabia between mid-17th and early 20th Centuries
  32. ↑ Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age
  33. ↑ Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs ‘Natural’ Climate Trends
  34. ↑ Naples and Sicily – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  35. ↑ FAMINE ()
  36. ↑ The locust plague
  37. ↑ Haze Famine (Icelandic history)
  38. ↑ ScienceDaily: Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows
  39. ↑ Richard H. Grove. Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño. „Nature”. 6683 (393), s. 318–319, 1998. DOI: 10.1038/30636. 
  40. ↑ The climatic effects of the 1783 Laki eruption. W: C. A. Wood: The Year Without a Summer?. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature, 1992, s. 58–77.
  41. ↑ J. Neumann. Great Historical Events that were Significantly Affected by the Weather: 2, The Year Leading to the Revolution of 1789 in France. „Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society”. 2 (58), s. 163–168, 1977. DOI: <0163:GHETWS>2.0.CO;2 10.1175/1520-0477(1977)058<0163:GHETWS>2.0.CO;2. 
  42. ↑ Fearfull Famines of the Past
  43. ↑ The Great Famine in Ireland, 1845-1849
  44. ↑ Ch'ing China: The Taiping Rebellion
  45. ↑ The Great Persian Famine of 1870-1871
  46. ↑ The St. Lawrence Island Famine and Epidemic, 1878–80, Arctic Anthropology
  47. ↑ Famine Hunger stalks Ethiopia once again -- and aid groups fear the worst
  48. ↑ El Niño and Drought Early Warning in Ethiopia
  49. ↑ The History of International Humanitarian Assistance
  50. ↑ Global Connections . Timeline
  51. ↑ Famine perspectives from past and present
  52. ↑ World's worst natural disasters since 1900
  53. ↑ The German Colonies on the Volga River – Famine Years
  54. ↑ The NDSU Libraries: Germans From Russia
  55. ↑ Famine of 1932, or Ukrainian genocide (Soviet history)
  56. ↑ Legacy of famine divides Ukraine
  57. ↑ The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin’s Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives
  58. ↑ Natural Disasters and Hazards – Historical Events Timeline
  59. ↑ 900-Day Siege of Leningrad
  60. ↑ Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 1941-1944
  61. ↑ Surviving Hitler and Mussolini: daily life in occupied Europe, by Robert Gildea, Anette Warring, Olivier Wieviorka, Berg Publishers 2007
  62. ↑ The 1947 Soviet famine and the entitlement approach to famines, Cambridge Journal of Economics
  63. ↑ Nicholas Ganson, The Soviet Famine of 1946-47 in Global and Historical Perspective[1]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. (ISBN 0-230-61333-0)
  64. ↑ The world's worst natural disasters
  65. ↑ Famine Casts Its Grim Global Shadow, TIME
  66. ↑ Bruce Cumings: We look at it and see ourselves
  67. ↑ Famine plagues Zimbabwe
  68. ↑ Food crisis looms in Myanmar, International Herald Tribune
  69. ↑ North Korea at risk of famine, says U.N., CNN.com
  70. ↑ The Next Great North Korean Famine, TIME
  71. ↑ Ethiopia facing new famine with 4.5 million children in danger of starvation , Telegraph
  72. ↑ Szablon:Cite news.
  73. ↑ Food crisis leaves Afghans desperate, msnp.adcom
  74. ↑ Food Crisis Looms in Bangladesh, International Business Times
  75. ↑ In-depth | Food Crisis: Status and Impacts, IRIN
  76. ↑ Tajikistan: Almost One-Third of the Population Is in Danger of Going Hungry This Winter, EurasiaNet
  77. ↑ National Food Emergency Grips Kenya. 20 Jan 2009.
  78. ↑ Starvation and Strife Menace Torn Kenya. The New York Times. February 28, 2009.


*

Handel elektroniczny

prace nie zostały jeszcze rozpoczęte. planowany start prac: 28 czerwca 2010. poniżej tekst oryginalny z en.wiki. --Kwpolska (zaspamuj | wkład) 13:55, 27 cze 2010 (CEST)[odpowiedz]

Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce,or e-business consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well.

A large percentage of electronic commerce is conducted entirely electronically for virtual items such as access to premium content on a website, but most electronic commerce involves the transportation of physical items in some way. Online retailers are sometimes known as e-tailers and online retail is sometimes known as e-tail. Almost all big retailers have electronic commerce presence on the World Wide Web.

Electronic commerce that is conducted between businesses is referred to as business-to-business or B2B. B2B can be open to all interested parties (e.g. commodity exchange) or limited to specific, pre-qualified participants (private electronic market). Electronic commerce that is conducted between businesses and consumers, on the other hand, is referred to as business-to-consumer or B2C. This is the type of electronic commerce conducted by companies such as Amazon.com. Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce where the buyer is directly online to the seller's computer usually via the internet. There is no intermediary service. The sale and purchase transaction is completed electronically and interactively in real-time such as Amazon.com for new books. If an intermediary is present, then the sale and purchase transaction is called electronic commerce such as eBay.com.

Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of the business transactions.

History

Early development

The meaning of electronic commerce has changed over the last 30 years. Originally, electronic commerce meant the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technology such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT). These were both introduced in the late 1970s, allowing businesses to send commercial documents like purchase orders or invoices electronically. The growth and acceptance of credit cards, automated teller machines (ATM) and telephone banking in the 1980s were also forms of electronic commerce. Another form of e-commerce was the airline reservation system typified by Sabre in the USA and Travicom in the UK.

Online shopping, a form of electronic commerce, pre-dates the IBM PC, Microsoft, Apple Inc. and the Internet/www. In 1979 Michael Aldrich,an English inventor, connected a modified 26" color domestic television to a real-time transaction processing computer via a domestic telephone line and invented online shopping.[1] The first recorded B2B was Thomson Holidays 1981[2] The first recorded B2C was Gateshead SIS/Tesco in 1984.[3] The world's first recorded online home shopper was Mrs Jane Snowball,72, of Gateshead, England in May 1984.[4] During the 1980s Aldrich sold many systems mainly in the UK including Ford, Peugeot [then trading as Talbot Motors], General Motors and Nissan.[5] The Nissan system of 1984/5 was revolutionary. It enabled a car buyer on a dealer's lot to both buy and finance the car, including credit check, online.[6] Aldrich invented both the online shopping system and the business rationale for using it. His system was copied and his ideas were plagiarised. His 1980s systems were as fast as 2010 internet shopping systems. They used dial-up and leased telephone lines as broadband was not available. He never patented his shopping system and his ideas are the basis of internet shopping.

From the 1990s onwards, electronic commerce would additionally include enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), data mining and data warehousing.

An early example of many-to-many electronic commerce in physical goods was the Boston Computer Exchange, a marketplace for used computers launched in 1982. An early online information marketplace, including online consulting, was the American Information Exchange, another pre InternetSzablon:Clarify online system introduced in 1991.

In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee invented the WorldWideWeb web browser and transformed an academic telecommunication network into a worldwide everyman everyday communication system called internet/www. Commercial enterprise on the Internet was strictly prohibited until 1991.[7] Although the Internet became popular worldwide around 1994 when the first internet online shopping started, it took about five years to introduce security protocols and DSL allowing continual connection to the Internet. By the end of 2000, many European and American business companies offered their services through the World Wide Web. Since then people began to associate a word "ecommerce" with the ability of purchasing various goods through the Internet using secure protocols and electronic payment services.

Timeline

  • 1979: Michael Aldrich invented online shopping
  • 1981: Thomson Holidays, UK is first B2B online shopping
  • 1982: Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Telecom and used for online ordering.
  • 1984: Gateshead SIS/Tesco is first B2C online shopping and Mrs Snowball, 72, is the first online home shopper
  • 1985: Nissan UK sells cars and finance with credit checking to customers online from dealers' lots.
  • 1987: Swreg begins to provide software and shareware authors means to sell their products online through an electronic Merchant account.
  • 1990: Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT computer.
  • 1992: J.H. Snider and Terra Ziporyn publish Future Shop: How New Technologies Will Change the Way We Shop and What We Buy. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-06359-8.
  • 1994: Netscape releases the Navigator browser in October under the code name Mozilla. Pizza Hut offers online ordering on its Web page. The first online bank opens. Attempts to offer flower delivery and magazine subscriptions online. Adult materials also become commercially available, as do cars and bikes. Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 SSL encryption that made transactions secure.
  • 1995: Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com and the first commercial-free 24 hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK and NetRadio start broadcasting. Dell and Cisco begin to aggressively use Internet for commercial transactions. eBay is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb.
  • 1998: Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web.
  • 1999: Business.com sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, which was purchased in 1997 for US $149,000. The peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches. ATG Stores launches to sell decorative items for the home online.
  • 2000: The dot-com bust.
  • 2002: eBay acquires PayPal for $1.5 billion.[8] Niche retail companies CSN Stores and NetShops are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted domains, rather than a central portal.
  • 2003: Amazon.com posts first yearly profit.
  • 2007: Business.com acquired by R.H. Donnelley for $345 million.[9]
  • 2009: Zappos.com acquired by Amazon.com for $928 million.[10] Retail Convergence, operator of private sale website RueLaLa.com, acquired by GSI Commerce for $180 million, plus up to $170 million in earn-out payments based on performance through 2012.[11]
  • 2010: US eCommerce and Online Retail sales projected to reach $173 billion, an increase of 7 percent over 2009.[12]

Business applications

Some common applications related to electronic commerce are the following:

Government regulations

In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online advertising and consumer privacy. The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive.[13] Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers’ personal information.[14] As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e-commerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.

The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies.[15]

Forms

Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering "digital" content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to "meta" services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce.

On the consumer level, electronic commerce is mostly conducted on the World Wide Web. An individual can go online to purchase anything from books or groceries, to expensive items like real estate. Another example would be online banking, i.e. online bill payments, buying stocks, transferring funds from one account to another, and initiating wire payment to another country. All of these activities can be done with a few strokes of the keyboard.

On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce today.

See also

Uwagi

  1. ↑ 2008 Aldrich.M The Inventor's Story Aldrich Archive, University of Brighton [2]
  2. ↑ 1988 Palmer C Using IT for competitive advantage at Thomson Holidays Long Range Planning Vol21 No6 p26-29 Institute of Strategic Studies Journal. London. Pergamon Press [now Elsevier B.V. December 1988. Original story at [3]
  3. ↑ 1984Videotex takes Gateshead Teleshopping into the home The Incorporated Engineer, Journal of the IEEE. London September 1984 p6 [4]
  4. ↑ 2008 Aldrich M Finding Mrs Snowball Aldrich Archive, University of Brighton [5] An interview with Mrs Snowball by Lawrence McGinty of ITN London in 1984 can be seen here
  5. ↑ Pioneer Case Studies Aldrich Archive, University of Brighton
  6. ↑ 1988 Behind the Driving Wheel at Nissan Information Management, London [6]
  7. ↑ Kevin Kelly: We Are the Web Wired magazine, Issue 13.08, August 2005
  8. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  9. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  10. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  11. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  12. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  13. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  14. ↑ Szablon:Cite web
  15. ↑ Szablon:Cite web

Szablon:Refend


Category:Marketing Category:Information technology management Category:Web applications Category:Web development pl:Handel elektroniczny

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